ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA
Colonialism
Refers to
the situation whereby
one powerful nation
extend its influence
over the weaker
nation politically, economically
and socially.
OR
Refers
to the
situation whereby one
nation dominate another
country politically, economically, socially and
ideologically.
COLONIAL RULE
Refers
to the administration system which was established by colonialists in Africa
soon after the establishment of colonial rule.
It is an administration by colonialists in
Africa colonies after the Berlin conference in 1886.
Soon
after the Berlin conference, European powers struggled to establish their rule
(administration) in their spheres of
influence.
The
establishment of colonial rule was aimed at creating total colonial control in
African colonies so as to safe guard the colonial interests.
PHASES OF COLONIAL RULE (COLONIAL
ADMINISTRATION)
In
Africa colonial rule passed into two phases which were as follows:
1.
Chartered
Company Administration
2.
Colonial
Government/ State
CHARTERED COMPANY ADMINISTRATION
Refers
to an association formed by investors or stake holders for the purpose of doing
trade, exploration and colonizing colonies.
Historically
chartered companies were formed by
investors who gave
this task to the traders and
explorers in Africa
to operate trade
and commerce for
profit maximization.
After
being formed, they were granted/ given charter/ legal identification by their
mother countries that identified them as official companies which were to represent
the interests of the metropolitan. This is why they became known as Chartered Companies.
Before
establishing colonial government, European powers gave
chartered companies the
task of establishing
an administration with
the purpose of seizing, colonizing and
administering the virgin
African territories.
Also they
were to safeguard
the interests of
the metropolitan. These companies operated in
those areas where
their mother nations
had economic interest.
COMPANIES IN EAST AFRICA
After
the Berlin conference, East Africa came under control of two European powers,
these were Germany and Britain. Therefore, the companies,
which were operating in those colonies, come from those countries, involved: -
(a) Germany East Africa Company (G.E.A.CO)
(b) The imperial British East African Company
(I.B.E.A.CO)
THE GERMANY EAST AFRICAN COMPANY (GEACO) 1884 –
1891
This
was an
organization established at the start
of the Germany
colonization of East Africa. The company in short, was
responsible for the activities
in the new colony (German East Africa) such as
setting up leadership (administration), future explorations, development of the
region etc.
Foundation
It was
founded in 1885
after presentation of
a treaty by
Karl Peters in
Berlin in Feb 1885. It
was official identified
in 1887.It was succeeded
by the German
government in 1891. It
established Bagamoyo as
their colony’s capital
but soon moved
it to Dar
es Salaam.
Founder
The
founder was Karl
Peters who was
the most significant
figure in the
establishment of the
company.
The company
generally, played a big
role in signing
treaties with African
chiefs in East Africa. The company
was also involved
in the partition
of East Africa
where two treaties
were involved i.e. Delimitation Treaty ( 1886) and Helgoland Treaty ( 1890).
Karl Peters also
signed treaties with
chiefs like Chief of
Usagara, Chief of Uzigua, Chief
of Ukamietc
THE IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICAN COMPANY
(IBEACO)
It
was a Commercial association formed so as
to develop African
trade in the
areas controlled by
the British Colonial
power in East
Africa.
The
origin of I.B.E.A.CO
can be traced
back to 1856 when
William Mackinnon formed
a steam ship
service in Indian Ocean. In
1862, it was renamed as
the British Indian
Steam Navigation where
in 1886, it was
given an imperial
charter, and thus it
became known as
I.B.E.A.CO
In 1888, Sir
William Mackinnon and
I.B.E.A.CO were authorized
to serve as
administrator of East
Africa Protectorate ( Kenya)
which was the
area of influence of
British East Africa. Generally the company
represented and defended
the British interest
in East Africa.
COMPANIES IN WEST AFRICA
In
West Africa there were
various chartered companies
that were operating for the
interests of their
mother countries in
Europe.
These
companies were as follows:-
i.
THE ROYAL NIGER COMPANY (RNC)
This was
a British Mercantile
Company that involved
in Commercial activities
in West Africa
in the 19th c
for the interest
of Britain. It was
formed by George
Goldie in 1879
as the United
African Company and
it was renamed
as the National
African Company ( NAC) in 1881.
The company
became known as
Royal Niger Company (RNC)
in 1886 July
when the British
government granted it
a charter and
Lord Aberdare became
governor while George
Goldie became Vice – governor.
The Company
dealt with trade, negotiating treaties
with African Chiefs
and defending the
British interests which
were in jeopardy
from the Germans
and French. The Company
existed for a
comparatively short time (1879 – 1900) but was
instrumental in the
formation of Colonial
Nigeria.
ii.
GERMAN WEST AFRICAN COMPANY (GWAC)
This
was a
German Chartered Company
formed so as to
safeguard the interests of
German and represents
the interests of
German in West
Africa. The company was established in 1885 and given a charter to
represent Germany interest in West Africa.
The
company operated in Cameroon and Togoland and it influenced Germany to colonize
the two countries in West Africa.
COMPANIES IN
SOUTH AFRICA
The
companies that were operating in this region were as follows:
i.
BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN COMPANY
This
was the British chartered company formed by Cecil Rhodes in order to represent
Britain in Southern Africa. The company was formed in 1884 and given a charter
to operate in Southern Africa.
The
company operated in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi and Zambia and
generally influenced Britain to colonize those areas.
THE ROLES OF CHARTERD COMPANIES
THE ROLES OF CHARTERD COMPANIES
Qn.
Discuss the roles played by chartered companies towards total colonization in
Africa.
Qn. In which ways the chartered companies
influenced colonialism in Africa.
Qn. Why European colonial powers transferred
the task of establishing colonial administration to their chartered companies?
i.
Signing of treaties.
The company had a task
to sign different treaties that would enable their nations to colonize areas in
Africa. For examples, a treaty between BSACO and King Lobengula of Matebelele
and on 3rd October 1888. Also a treaty between GEACO and Chief
Magungo of Msovero in 1884.
ii.
Suppressing African
Resistances.
It
was a duty of the companies to suppress all resistances in Africa which were
against colonial rule. For examples, GEACO suppressed Hehe Resistance in
Tanganyika, IBEACO suppressed Nandi Resistance in Kenya etc.
iii.
Abolition of Slave
Trade.
The
Chartered Companies also involved much
in the abolition
of Slave trade
in Africa. They abolished
Slave trade in order
to establish a new
trade called Legitimate
trade which emphasized
an exchange of
goods and not
slaves.
iv. Exploitation of
African Resources.
The
companies carried out
import and export
activities in order to
exploit the African
resources particularly minerals
for the industries
in the metro
poles. For example the
B.S.A.CO ensured the
exploitation of minerals
in South Africa, Botswana and
Zimbabwe
v.
Establishment of Infrastructures.
Chartered Companies
also played a big role
in establishing and developing economic
infrastructures such as
roads , railways and
ports so as to ensure
inports and export. For
example, G.E.A.CO
established the Central
Railway Line in
Tanganyika which was
constructed from 1893 to 1905 – 1914, I.B.E.A.CO started the
construction of a
railway line from Uganda
to Kisumu in 1896.
vi.
Protecting the
Boundaries of Colonies.
Chartered
Companies also protected
the boundaries of
their colonies by
preventing other rival
powers from occupying
them. For example: In East
Africa G.E.A.CO ( Germany) signed
the agreement of
1886 to resolve
boundaries conflict between
the two powers.
vii. Exploring the Hinterland of Africa.
The companies
were responsible for
exploring the interior
of Africa and the
resources available. The
information brought by
those companies fueled
the process of colonization
of Africa. For example the Royal
Niger Company (RNC) explored Nigeria, Niger and Ghana for the future
colonization by the British.
viii. Generating Funds.
Chartered
Companies also were
responsible in generating
fund through commercial
activities so as
to finance their
administrative activities and expenses.
For example, the Mozambique
Company by the
Portuguese in Mozambique
formed a private
bank ( Banco de
Beira) in Beira in
order to run different
colonial projects.
FAILURE OF COMPANY RULE
(THE COLLAPSE OF CHARTERED COMPANY
ADMINISTRATION)
Qn.
Examine the factors
behind the decline of Chartered Company rule in Africa.
Qn.
Why Chartered Company
administration in Africa did not live longer.
Company
rule did not meet their responsibilities, they achieved very few objectives
contrary to what was expected by their mother countries. In 1900’s many
Companies did not continue with
their administration and
therefore they transferred
all their political
administrative rights to
the governments in their
mother countries.
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF CHARTERED COMPANIES
There were
several reasons which
led to the
failure of the
Chartered Companies in Africa as follows:
a) Financial problems. Many of the Chartered Companies later
on ran bankrupt. The bankrupt was due
to the fact
that home government did not
support much the
/company operations. Also the
Companies had many
responsibilities to fulfill, for
example Suppressing resistances
and construction of
infrastructures. Generally, this led to failure of these Companies.
b) African resistances. The Companies also faced many
resistances from the natives. This
was due to the
fact that, Africans were
not happy with
the presence of the foreigners. For example
G.E.A.CO faced a Stiff resistance from
the Coastal people
led by Abushiri
and Bwana Heri in
1888 – 1889. Also I.B.E.A.CO faced
stiff resistance from the
Nandi in Kenya. This contributed to the failure of the
companies.
c) Lack of Experienced and skilled administrators. The companies
recruited most of the staff outside
East Africa without
much regard of
their experience and
qualification. Also, much of the
Company officials and
traders were less
competent in their
responsibilities hence failure
of Company rule.
d) Presence of tropical diseases. This limited the
penetration of the company officials to reach the interior. For example
Malaria killed many
G.E.A.CO and I.B.E.CO
officials something which
resulted into shortage of
officials hence failure of
the companies.
e) Language problem (barrier). There was language
barrier between Africans and the Company Officials. It was difficult
to communicate between
the two groups( Africans and
Europeans) as each group
found the language
of other being
difficult. Hence, decline of Company rule.
f) Lack of transport and communication facilities. This was
another problem that
faced Chartered Company
administration to the
interior was not
easy as some
area lacked good
and variable transport
networks. This made the
exploitation of resources
and administration in
general to become
difficult. Hence, decline of Company rule.
g) Harsh Climatic Condition (Bad climatic condition). The climatic
condition of various
parts of Africa
was not conductive to
Europeans. For example
in East
Africa the climate
was not friendly and favarable to Company Officials hence
failure of Company’s activities.
h) Insufficient knowledge about Africa. Most of
the Company Officials
lacked sufficient knowledge
about the areas
where the companies
were operating. For instance, the I.B.E.A.CO
Officials were not
sure on the
navigability of some
rivers such as
River Tana and
Juba
i) Maltreatment
of the natives. In some areas, the company rule over exploited
and harassed badly the indigenous. The
maltreatment of the companies
created hostility with
Africans, something which led
to stiff resistance. For example Karl Peters (G.E.A.CO) was
nicknamed as “Mikono ya Damu” by the natives
in East Africa
due to his
brutality. He therefore faced
a lot of resistances
and dislike until
his dismissal.
METHODS USED IN IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE
The colonial
powers used various
methods or tactics
in imposing their
colonial rule in
Africa. Those methods
depended on nature
of the Africans in
a particular area
and the response
from the Africans. There were
different factors which
determined the method
to be used
in imposing colonial
rule.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINED THE TYPE OF METHOD TO
BE USED
There were
different factors that
determined the type
of method which
was to be
used by colonialists
in imposing their
colonial rule in Africa. Some of these
factors are as
follows
i.
Centralized
states with strong leaders. Some areas
in Africa had
centralized political system
with strong leaders
who were not
ready to accept
colonial rule. In those
areas, colonialists employed military
force and conquest. For examples King Jaja
of Opobo in
Nigeria, Mkwawa of Uhehe
Chiefdom, King Lobengula of
Matebele land etc.
ii.
Traditional
conflicts between Africans. Some African societies had
tribal conflicts with
each others. This made
colonialists to employ
collaboration method where they
sided with one of
the societies in conflict
in order to defeat
the other society. For
example: The Germans collaborated
with the Bena
and Sangu against
the Hehe, The British
collaborated with King
Lenana of Maasai
against his brother
Sendeyo, Chief Lewanika of
Rwozi Kingdom collaborated
with the British
against other parts
of Central Africa
which were a
threat to him etc.
iii.
Weaker
societies. In areas with
weaker societies,
colonialists used treaties
of protection and claimed
to make friendship
between them and
African chiefs. A good example,
By 1885, Kari Peters had already
made twelve treaties
with Chief of Usagara, Uzigua etc.
iv.
Society
problems. Some societies had
various problems like
diseases, drought and shortage
of food. Colonialists decided to
use diplomacy and
collaboration as a method
to impose their
colonial rule.A good example
was the Maasai
under Lenana who
collaborated with the
colonialists due to
rinder pests and drought.
v.
The
Nature of African Society. Some
societies in Africa
were very reluctant and
did not easily
want to be
under colonialists. This made
colonialists to apply the
use of force
and gun boat
diplomacy to intimidate
them. For example, The British
applied gun – boat diplomacy
against King Jaja
of Opobo, The British
also applied this
method in Kenya
to conquer the
Nandi.
THE METHODS USED TO IMPOSE COLONIAL RULE
a) Treaty Making (Diplomacy). Through this method, African chiefs
signed bogus treaties with Colonial
agents deliberately. African chiefs
did not understand
the details of
those treaties something
which led to colonial
rule.
b) Military force (Conquest). This method
was used in
those societies that
attempted to oppose
colonial rule. Many African
societies were not ready
to be under
colonial rule therefore, they were
conquered by the
colonialists by using
military methods. A good example
were the Mandika, Hehe, Yao and the
Nyamwezi
c) Divide and rule technique. It was
a method used
by colonialists to divide
the Africans and
weakening their unity. The
colonialists used the
existing conflicts between Africans so as to magnify
the differences. The weak
societies were supported
by colonialists against
their rivals, for example, The
British instigated disunity
between the Buganda
and Bunyoro people, The
French created and
magnified disunity between
Mandika people and
Toklar people etc.
d) Gun boat diplomacy. It was
a method aimed
at creating a
sense of fear ( intimidation) among
Africans. Colonialists
exposed their military
weapons publically so
as to create
psychological fear among
Africans and making
them withdraw their
intention of resisting
colonial rule.This was used
to conquer Jaja
of Opobo and
the Nandi by the British.
e) Collaboration. Through this
method, European allied or
collaborated with a
group of Africans
which could defend their
interest against another
group.In most case, they
allied with weaker
society so as
to occupy the
strong society. For example, this
was applied by the British
who collaborated with
Semei Kakunguru so as
to conquer Eastern
Uganda.
AFRICAN RESISTANCES/RESPONSE TO COLONIAL RULE
African societies
did not keep
silent at time
of imposition of
Colonial rule. Africans reacted
differently and vigorous to
the imposition of
colonial rule. There were
three forms of
African reactions ( responses) towards
imposition of colonial
rule.
FORMS OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES
African Resistance
Resistance refers
to an opposition
or disagreement of
a certain matter. African resistances
refers to different oppositions of reactions that
were taken by
African Society towards
the imposition of
colonial rule in their
localities. Many African resistances
historically occurred during the establishment of colonial
rule after the
Berlin Conference. But these
resistances ( reactions) took place
in three forms:
a)
Active
Resistance
b)
Passive
Resistance
c)
Adaptation
(Collaboration)
A. ACTIVE RESISTANCE
This
was a response where the Africans resisted actively by showing of military
opposition. In this form, Africans
took their weapons to fight
against colonial encroachment
in their localities. However, active resistances
were divided into
two groups
a)
Small
– Scale Resistance
b)
Large
– Scale Resistance
SMALL SCALE RESISTANCE
This
refer to
the resistance whereby
the local community
armies or traditional
leaders of a certain
ethnic group resisted against
colonial rule. In other
words, it was an
active resistance that
covered a small
area involving one tribe
or two. A good
example of Small Scale
Resistance included Nyamwezi Resistance, Hehe Resistance, Samore
Toure Resistance, Yao Resistance, Nandi Resistance
etc.
LARGE SCALE RESISTANCE
It
was a resistance which
involved more than
one ethnic group ( tribe). This is
where ethnic groups
joined together to
fight against Colonial
rule. A good example was Majimaji resistance in
Tangayika, Nama and Herero resistance
in Namibia, Shona and Ndebdele ( Chimurenga Uprising) in
Zimbabwe etc.
Sometimes,
this type of resistance
is named as Secondary resistance. This type
of active resistance
was common among
societies which accommodated
colonialism at the
beginning but later
decide to resist after
being subjected to
colonial exploitation and
oppression.
B. PASSIVE RESISTANCE
This was
the type of
resistance where Africans
did not involve the
use of arms
to fight and
did not cooperate
with the colonizers. In other
words, Africans did not
do anything ( to resist
or cooperate) with the
colonizers. What these Africans
did, was to resist
to participate in
the colonial activities
and payment of taxes
but not imposition of
Colonial rule in
their areas.
This was
done by most
of the smaller
societies in Africa
which could not
unite and oppose
the Encroachment of colonial
rule.
C. ADAPTATION (COLLABORATION)
In
this type or
response, since African chiefs
welcomed the Europeans, assisted them
to consolidate their colonial
rule and sometimes they
allied with the
colonizers to conquer
the neighboring societies. A
good example of
African Chiefs who
collaborated with the
Colonizers includes: Chief Lewanika
of Rwozi Kingdom, Chief Mareale
of Kilimanjaro, Mumia of Kenya, SemeiKakunguru in
Uganda, ApoloKagwa in Uganda etc.
REASONS FOR AFRICANS TO COLLABORATE WITH
COLONIALISTS
There
were various reasons
why some Africans
Chiefs and Individuals
collaborated with the
colonizers during the
imposition of colonialism. Some of
those reasons were
as follows:
i.
Expectations
of Africans. Some Africans were ignorant of
the colonizers ambitions. They hoped
to be protected
by the colonialists
against their rivals
to revenge against
their enemies. This made them
collaborate with colonizers. For example, The
Sangu collaborated with
the Germans against
the Hehe who
were attacking them everyday
ii.
Physical
Factors. Factors like diseases, drought and
shortage of food
made some societies
to collaborate with
the colonizers For example, the Maasai by
the time of
Colonial intrusion were
seriously affected by
Cholera, rinderpest which killed
their cattle and
weak economy. This made
them to collaborate. Also the
Haya , Ankole and Ha
were seriously affected
by jiggers something
which made them
not to react
militarily, instead they decided
to collaborate.
iii.
Individual
interests. Some
Africans Chiefs wanted
to defend their economic
and political positions. Therefore they
decided to collaborate
with colonizers fearing
that the whites
would remove them
from powers.
iv.
The
role played by Missionaries. The penetration
of missionaries and
their preaching made
the Africans to
refrain from resisting
and decided to
collaborate. Fighting was regarded
as a sign
of backwardness according
to the missionaries. Also fighting
was considered to be against
Christians beliefs.
v.
Presence
of Traditional conflicts. Some
African Societies had
internal conflicts with
each other’s whish
were traditionally.
Therefore Africans tended
to welcome Europeans
as allies against
their rivals for
political domination. A good
example Chief Lenana
of Maasai against
his brother Sendeyo.
vi. The Desire of wealth. Africans also collaborated with
colonialists as they
hoped to gain
more wealth from. This
was due to
the fact that
Europeans had many luxurious
goods which attracted
many Africans. A good
example was Apollo
Kagwa in Uganda.
vii. The need to participate in colonial
government. African
Chiefs also collaborated
with the colonizer
because they hoped that
colonialists would include
them in their colonial governments. A good example
was Semei Kakunguru In
Uganda
REASONS FOR AFRICAN RESISTANCES AGAINST
COLONIAL RULE
There were
several reasons why
Africans resisted against
the imposition of
colonial rule In
their areas. Africans
reacted against the
imposition of colonial
rule due to
the following reasons.
a) The desire to protect their culture. Some societies
in Africa resisted
because they wanted to
preserve their religion
and culture.In some parts of
Africa, Islamic culture was
deeply rooted and
was accepted as
a society religion.For
instance the Coastal people in Tanganyika resisted
against the Germans
in East Africa
due to religious
motives.Germans who were
Christians seemed to
jeopardize the interests
of the Muslims.Therefore Abushiri
and Bwana Heri
led the Coastal
people in resisting
against the Germans
for this reason.
b) They wanted to protect their land. Some African
societies resisted because they
wanted to protect their
economic interests such
as land.For instance: the Nandi, Shona and
Ndebele and the
MajiMaji uprisings were
waged so as
to protect the
economic interests of
the people in
those areas.
c) They wanted to defend Social and
Political Sovereignty. Some
African chiefs resisted against
colonial rule because
they realized that, their
power and position
would be destroyed
after the arrival
of colonizers.For
exampleSamoreToure of the Mandika
empire, Mkwawa of Hehe, Kabarega of
Bunyoro etc.
d) They wanted to prove their strongest in
political and military. Other
societies fought because
they believed to
be politically and militarily
strong. Worse enough, they were ignorant
of the European military
capability.They had an
experience of war
in their localities, which made them
to be confident
for any fight.A good
example were: SamoreToure of
Mandika Empire, believed
that his
forces could defeat
the French, The Nandi in Kenya
believed to be
strong enough to
defeat I.B.E.A.CO forces etc.
e) They wanted to preserve their trade monopolies. In
other areas the chiefs
mobilized their people
to resist so as to
preserve their trade
monopolies. Some societies had a big
monopoly on trade
that was conducted
in their areas for
example, The Yao and
the Nyamwezi had
a strong hold
to the East
African Long distance
trade, therefore they resisted
the Germans due to
this reason, King Jaja
of Opobo and Asante
people of West
Africa fought against
the British for
the purpose of
safeguarding their economic
interests( trade) etc.
f) They resisted because of their
ideology(belief). Other societies fought because of
their belief that
cultivate ( instilled) the
sense of unity and
confidence to them. For
example, the MajiMaji was
fueled by the use
of the magic
water in which
the people built
confidence that it
could enable them
to win the
war. This was due
to the people
beliefs that once
the whites attempted
to shoot them, the
bullets would turn
into water. This made them
to have confidence and
resist the Germans.
They resisted because of
Colonial exploitation and oppression. Africans united to resist
against the foreigners due to
Colonial exploitation and oppression. Africans were
not happy with
taxation, forced labor, land
alienation and cattle
confiscation. For example, the MajiMaji
resistance in Tanganyika and
the Nama and
Herero resistance in
Namibia were both
fueled by colonial
exploitation and oppression.
RESISTANCES IN EAST AFRICA
COASTAL PEOPLE’S RESISTANCE (1888 – 1889)
It was
a resistance waged
by the Coastal
people in Tanganyika against the
Germans. The coastal people
were led by
Abushiri and Bwana
Heredity was the
earliest resistance in Tanganyika. Abushiri binSalim
had his headquarters
at Pangani. The trouble
started on August
8th 1888 when
the Germans arrived
to establish themselves along
the Coast. The Coastal
people under Abushiri
rioted and refused/ protested the
existence of the
German flag in their
area.
The war
later on spread
to Bagamoyo, Tanga, Mikindani
and Kilwa and
it also reached
Pangani. Bwana Heri, the
ruler of the
Zigua joined his
force together in
that war. The Germans
sent Von Weismann to
suppress the resistance. The Germans
recruited mercenaries to
assist them in suppressing
the resistance. These involved
the Zulu, Turkish, Nubians and
Somalis.
Von
Weismann captured Pangani and
other Coastal towns
in 1889. Abushiri was defeated
and escaped , but
he was captured
by the Germans
after being betrayed
by JumbeMagaya of
Usagara. He was hanged
at Bagamoyo on
December 15th 1889.
Also the
people of Kilwa
organized the resistance
in 1894. They were
led by Hassan
bin Makunganya who
led the people
of Kilwa to
fight against the Germans.
The resistance
did not last
longer as Makunganya
was captured and
hanged on November
15 1895 on
a mango tree ( MwembeKunyonga)
THE HEHE RESISTANCE (1891 – 1898)
This was
a resistance that
was waged by
the Hehe under
Chief Mkwawa (Mkwanyika) to fight
against the Germans
at Uhehe. The Hehe
Resistance was a
remarkable war in
the German history
as far as the colonization
of Tanganyika is
concern. This is because
the war took
a long time
than other resistances
that faced Germany
in Africa. Mkwawa fought
the Germans in order
to safeguard his
political and economic
interests. This was due to
the fact
that, the German traders
interfered the trade
in his area.
Mkwawa decided
to block the
trade caravans which
were passing in
his area. This tendency
provoked the Germans
who decided to react
against Mkwawa. At the
beginning, Mkwawa wanted to make
compromise with the
Germans as he
sent delegates to meet
the Germans Officials
who were at
the, however the German killed
those delegates.
This made
Mkwawa to respond
in the same
way where in 1891,
he killed German
Commander Emily Von Zelewiksy
and hi soldiers. Therefore the
Germans were seriously
defeated in the
first attack. The Germans
reorganized for another attack where
in 1894 they
attacked Uhehe and
managed to capture
Kalenga, which was Mkwawa’s
capital.The war continued
for four years
until 1898 when
the Hehe succumbed
to the German
colonial rule.
However,
Mkwawa could not
accept the same
of surrendering, he
shot himself. The German
soldier found Mkwawa
already dead and
decided to cut
off his head
and took it to Germany.
THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE (1891 – 1893)
It was
a small – scale resistance
waged by the
Nyamwezi in Western Tanganyika. The resistance
took place between
1891 and 1893.The
Nyamwezi people were
led by Isike to
fight against the
German colonial rule. Isike
led the Nyamwezi
people to defend
his political sovereignty and
economic interests. The Germans
threatened his position, as
they wanted to
control the Long
distance which was
the backbone of
Isike’s economy. The Nyamwezi
fought bravely and
managed to resist
the German’s attacks. However in
1893 the Nyamwezi
were defeated and
Isike decided to shoot himself
rather than being
captured by the
Germans.
THE YAO RESISTANCE (1890 – 1899)
This was
a resistance undertaken
by the Yao
under the leader, Machemba to
fight against the
Germans. This occurred after
introduction of hut tax by
the Germans but
the Yao refused
to pay the hut
tax. The Germans decided
to attack them
but at the
initial stage, Machemba won
the Germans attempts. In
1899, the Germans sent an
ultimatum which forced
him to surrender
out Machemba refused
and continued to
resist the German
Colonial rule.
Therefore in July
1889, the Germans decided
to apply their
Military force and
as a result
they occupied Machemba’ s
fort and imprisoned
his followers. Machemba himself
had no any
other choice rather
than escaping to
Mozambique.
NANDI RESISTANCE (1895) – 1905)
Refer to
the resistance that
was waged by
the Nandi people
in Kenya against
the I.B.E.A.CO ( The British
Colonial rule). The Nandi
resisted the British
intrusion under their
leader Koitalel Arap Samoei. The
title of the
Nandi leader was
called “ Orkoiyot”
Traditionally, the Nandi were
pastoralists.
During
the 19th c the
Nandi became superior
as they managed
to win different
battles with their
neighboring societies such
as the Maasai. The
Nandi grew more
powerful as the
Maasai power declined. Therefore, during the
advent of British
Colonial rule, the Nandi
resisted strongly against
the British penetration.
They did
not allow Europeans
even to cross
their territory. In 1895, they
killed a British trader
named West as
he attempted to
pass through their
land. This awakened the
British to start
fighting the Nandi.
REASONS FOR NANDI RESISTANCE
i.
The
Construction of railway. The I.B.E.A.CO started
to construct the railway
line which was
to pass through the
Nandi’s land. This railway
line made the
Nandi to start
resisting because the
railway interfered their
daily activities and
culture.
ii.
Land
problem. The
construction of the
railway had impact
on the Nandi people. The
Nandi were removed
from their land
as the British
wanted to create
vacant land for
whites settlement. This made
the Nandi not
to continue with
pastoral activities hence
resistance against the
British.
iii.
The
Nandi resistance. The
Nandi believed that
they were superior
as they had
experienced different wars
with their neighbors
and won them. They
believed that their
culture was superior
and they did
not want their
culture to be
interfered by anybody. This
made them to
resist the British.
iv.
Kimnyole’s
prophecy. Kimnyole was an Ex
– Orkoiyot. During his reign, he had
prophesized that Nandi
land would one
day be ruled
by the foreigners. Also he
added that one
day there would
come a long and
big snake from Indian
Ocean belching smoke
and fire. The snake turned to
be the
railway, and when the Nandi saw
the construction of the railway
they started to
resist against the
British.
v.
The
need to protect their political freedom. Koitale Arap Samoei
organized the Nandi to resist against the British in order to restore and
protect their political freedom. This is due to the fact that, the Nandi did
not want to under British Colonial rule.
Although the Nandi resisted heavily the British colonial rule for
about 10 years , but
they were at
last defeated. It was in 1905
that the Nandi
were defeated by
the British.
Note
The
British managed to defeat them after killing their leader Koitalel Arap Samoei
(Orkoiyot). The British Commander, Colonel Meinertzhagen visited
the Nandi leaders
as Orkoiyot came
out to greet
his visitors he
was shot dead
together with other
leaders, From that moment, the
Nandi were removed
to the reserves
EFFECTS OF NANDI RESISTANCE
a) Massive loss of life. The
Council of Elders, the
Orkoiyot and the
army warriors were
both killed
b) Destruction of the Nandi properties.
The Nandi villages
and farms were
set on fire
by the British. The
British also confiscated a lot
of cattle which
belonged to the
Nandi.
c) The Nandi became squatters.
The Nandi became
squatters on the
white farms. They were
employed as cheap
laborers
d) Africans were pushed into reserves and
others were left landless. Those who
were pushed into the
reserves, were turned into
squatters and employed
as cheap laborers.
e) Completion of the railway line.
The defeat of
the Nandi made
the British to
continue with the
construction of the
railway line which
in turn facilitated
transportation in Kenya
and Uganda respectively.
f)
British
Colonialism. The
defeat of the
Nandi made the
British to colonize
the Nandi country. The
Nandi lost their sovereignty.
MAJI MAJI WAR (1905 – 1907)
Refers
to the
war which was
waged by Southern
Tanganyika tribes against
the German Colonial rule. It was
the large – scale resistance
which covered South
- Eastern part of
Tanganyika. The war involved
several tribes including
the Zaramo, Ngindo,Luguru,
Makonde, Matumbi, Mbunga and Ngoni
just to mention
the few. This ethnic groups
joined together to
fight against Germans
under the leadership of
Kinjekitile Ngware at
the area near
Ngalambe river.
MajiMaji war
got its name
for the Swahili
word “ Maji” which was used
to refer to
magic water that was
used by KinjekitileNgware from
Rufiji River.
He told
the people that after
drinking and being washed
by that water, the
bullets of the
Germans could not
harm anyone, The German
bullets could be
changed into water. The
magic water gave
the fighter( Southern tribes) the
confidence of fighting
against the Germans.
REASONS FOR THE OUTBREAK OF MAJI MAJI
WAR
i.
Africans
wanted to defend their political sovereignty. The
Germans invasion interfered the traditional political structures of Southern
Tanganyika societies and replaced
them with rulers such
as Akidas and Jumbes. The Matumbi
for instance, hated the
Arab Akidas who
the Germans gave
power to rule on their
behalf. The Akidas and
Jumbes were very
brutal hence MajiMaji
war.
ii.
The
Introduction of Taxation. The natives were forced to pay tax
to the colonial government. The Jumbes
and Akidas enforced
the collection of taxes
by using excessive
force. This created a lot
of embarrassment to
the Africans such
as beating men in
front of
their wives and
children. This as a result
led to the outbreak
of MajiMaji war
iii.
Introduction
of Cash crops production. In 1902 the German governor in Tanganyika
Julius Von Sodden, ordered that
every Akida must
establish a cotton
plot where the
people would come
to work. The Africans
faced hardship as
they worked for
long time and
were low wages. This eventually led to MajiMaji
uprising.
iv.
Land
alienation. The cotton program was introduced in African
areas where Africans
were dispossessed of
their land and in
turn were made
landless. This situation made Africans
to wage the MajiMaji war
so as to
restore their land.
v.
The
character and conduct of Germans. The Germans
were very harsh, brutal
and lacked moral
consideration and respect. For
instance, the Ngindo complained
on the German mercenaries
and others on
their sexual harassment
and misbehaving with
their wives. This eventually
led to the MajiMaji
uprising.
vi.
Cultural
interference. The
Germans imposed the
policy of destroying African customs. The African culture was
disgraced. The Missionaries condemned
the initiation ceremonies
and circumcision and
worse enough they
introduced Christianity religion. This as
a result led
to the MajiMaji
war so as
to restore the
African culture.
vii.
Good
Leadership of Kinjekitile. KinjekitileNgware managed
to join and
mobilize several ethnic
group magic water
which created unity
among the Africans
and finally made
them confident to
wage the MajiMaji
war.
EFFECTS OF MAJI MAJI WAR
i.
Famine
and starvation. Large famine and starvation broke out among
the Africans. This was due
to the fact
that, the Germans attacked the
farms and grain stores. It
is estimated that
50,000 people died
due to famine caused
by the war.
ii.
Large
scale migration. Many
Africans migrated from
the areas which
were affected by
the war. They were
looking for asylum
for their survival.
iii.
Provided
a lesson to the Germans. The
sacrifice of thousands
of Tanganyikans killed in
a war was an
important lesson to
colonizers that Africans
were ready to die
for their country’s
independence.
iv.
Provided
a foundation for anti – colonial struggles. MajiMaji war
acted as a
foundation for the later
anti – colonial struggles in
the 1940’s and
1950’s.
v.
It
inspired other nationalist’s fighters. MajiMaji war
inspired other nationalists like MwalimuNyerere to
unite all Tanganyikan
people just like what
Kinjekitile did in
order to fight
for independence later
in 1950’s.
vi.
Provided
a lesson to other Africans. Other Africans outside
Tanganyika were inspired by Maji
Maji to
unite together as
a way to
fight independence. For instance
the Kenyans used Mau Mau
movements against the
British Colonial government
in order to demand their
independence.
vii.
The
Germans changed their system of ruling. The German Colonial
government decided to change their system
of ruling by
adopting peaceful approaches
rather than coercive
approaches.
SHONA AND NDEBELE RESISTANCE 1896 – 1897
(CHIMURENGA
UPRISING)
Mashona and
Matebele resistance (
Chimurenga war) refers
to the resistances
which took place
in the present
day Zimbabwe against
the establishment of
Colonial rule.It was a
reaction organized by
the Mashona and Matebele
people against British
Colonial rule in
Zimbabwe ( Southern Rhodesia)
which was represented by B.S.A.CO
The origin
of Chimurenga uprising
can be traced back
in 1890, where at
first the Whites ( British) who were under B.S.A.CO
arrived in Mashona
land. The Shona people
decided to collaborate
with the British
as they hoped
that, the British would
protect them against
their traditional rivals, the
Ndebele.
But the
matter was not
so. The Shona later
on in 1893
came to realize
that their interests
were in jeopardy
because the B.S.A.CO
started to monopolize
trade and land
in Masholand. Therefore, in
the same
year 1893, the Shona decide
to react militarily
against the British. But
this was fruitless
as the Shona
were very weak
militarily compared to the
whites.
Three years
later, In April 1896, the
Shona decided to join
with their traditional
rivals, the Ndebele to
make a joint uprising
which came to be
known as Chimurenga
uprising.
REASONS FOR THE OUTBREAK OF CHIMURENGA UPRISING
i.
Land
alienation (Expropriation). The B.S.A.CO expropriated the
Shona land without
consulting the local
chiefs. Nearly all the fertile
land in Mashona
was taken away
and given to
the whites. In other hand
the Ndebele were
turned to be squatters
on European farms. They
were required to
pay rent of
labor for the use
of land. This as a result led
to the
outbreak of Chimurenga
uprising.
ii.
Forced
labor. The B.S.A.CO established policies which forced/ compelled Africans
in both Matebele land and
Mashonaland to supply
labor in whites
and mining. Labor was recruited
by armed forces
or by police
forces something which
provoked anger to
Africans hence Chimurenga
Uprising.
iii.
Trade
monopoly. The Chimurenga Uprising was also due to the British South
African Company (B.S.A.CO) which interfered and
monopolized the trade
patterns of the
Shona and Ndebele. The
Shona for long time had
established a mutual
trade relationship with the
Portuguese in which
they obtained arms
and a variety
of goods at
low price. The B.S.A.CO
attempted to stop
that trade something
which angered the
Africans. Also the Ndebele
were forced by the
Company to dispossess
the gold mining
and buying and
selling from South
Africa. This also added
to the inevitability of the
Chimurenga Uprising.
iv.
Cattle
confiscation. The Mashona and
Matebele depended much
en – cattle rearing. The B.S.A.CO
interfered with the
native Germany as
they started to confiscate
the cattle and give
to the whites. Meanwhile,
the Ndebele were
only permitted to
keep at least 40,00
cattle. Therefore, for those with
above the permitted
number, their cattle were
offered to the
volunteers or to the
B.S.A.CO. Other exceeding cattle
were dispatched to the South
Africa. This as a
result led to
the Chimurenga Uprising
because Africans were
discontent with Cattle
confiscation.
v.
The
outbreak of rinderpest diseases. In 1895, there
was outbreak of
rinderpest disease which
killed many cattle
in both Matebele
and Mashona land. The
outbreak of this
epidemics was associated
with the presence
of Europeans ( White men) in
the region. Traditional
leaders said that
the Rinderpest occurred due to
the presence of the
white men, and therefore
it was a punishment
or curse from
the ancestral spirits. In
other hand, the B.S.A.CO in the
process of combating
the epidemics, ordered the people
to kill their cattle. The
decision of the
British provoked the
Africans who started organizing the
war against the British
hence Chimurenga war.
vi.
Harsh
treatment. Chimurenga uprising also was
influenced by harsh
treatment which was
practiced by the British
officials, the B.S.A.CO
administrators and also
the Native commissioners.Frequent brutal
and corporal punishment
were exercised by the
B.S.A.CO administrators and
the native commissioners
who used the “ Sjambok” a kind
of whip to punish
the Africans. The elderly
people were flagged and
killed in public, and the conditions
in the mines
were deplorable.
vii.
Transportation
policies. The British introduced
different taxes in Matebele
and Mashona land
and the collection
of tax usually
took the form
of cash payment
or grabbing cattle, goats
and grains from the
people who could
manage to pay
taxes. In 1894, Hut tax
was introduced. The Shona
and Ndebele Chiefs
regarded this measure
as a threat
as the British
government did not consult
them hence Chimurenga
war.
viii.
Payment
of low wages. Chimurenga
uprising was also
resulted from payment
of low wages to the Africans
by the British
in both Matebele
and Mashona land.Africans
were lowly paid
in the mines
and farms compared
to the work
they were performing. Also the
environment of works
and working hours
were exploitative and
harmful hence Ndebele
and Shona Resistance.
ix.
Abolition
of the Indunas. The
British abolished the
Indunas age regiments
among the Matebele. Military towns
were outlawed and
the Ndunas were
deprived their power, importance and
position. Above all it was embarrassing
for the British
to nominate the
Shona policemen to
enforce laws and
order in Matebele
land. This angered much
the Ndebele hence
they joined with
Shona to resist
the British.
x.
Cultural
interference. The British Missionaries disregarded the
traditions and customs of the Shona and Ndebele people. The Missionaries wanted
Africans to abandon their culture, especially ignoring their traditional
religion which was based on Mwari cult. This eventually resulted into the
outbreak of Chimurenga Uprising.
xi.
The
desire to restore the lost independence. The British interference and
colonialism in Matebele land and Mashona land created hostility and Africans
day to day were discontent with the situation.
EFFECTS OF CHIMURENGA WAR
By
1897, the whites with their new and modern weapons and tactics defeated the
Ndebele and finally the Shona. There was a cup of effects of the Chimurenga war
as follows:
i.
Death of people. The Chimurenga
warriors were taught
a bitter lesson and many
of them died
during the uprising. Many people died
and many other
were put on
trial for murder and
hanged.
ii.
The
Indunas ( retired soldiers)
in Matebele were
recognized and given
some leadership in the new
system and paid
salaries.
iii.
The
Ndebele were redistributed new
lands in the
lowlands where they
lived happily without being
interfered.
iv.
The
B.S.A.CO administration incorporated
and expropriated more
fertile land and
cattle as war
compensation. This made many
Africans to lose
fertile land and
their cattle.
v.
The
Ndebele received favors
from the whites
because they ceased
the fighting against the
British. But the Shona
in other hand
did not cease
fire during the
uprising and continued
the war. That is why
they were not
favored by the
B.S.A.CO administration.
vi.
Many
Africans adopted Christianity
due to the inability
of Mwari cult
and Mhimo cult
to defeat the white men. This eventually
resulted into stagnation
of African culture.
vii.
The
company administration was
blamed for brutal
administration and oppression.
viii.
The
defeat of Chimurenga
war resulted into
total Colonial occupation by
the British in
both Mashona and
Matebele land. The two regions became a single country which was named
Southern Rhodesia by the British
and the Shona
and Ndebele were subjected into
divide and rule
policy.
ix.
Divide and rule policy. After defeating
the Shona and Ndebele, the
British introduced a
policy of administration called “ Divide and
Rule Policy” in Southern
Rhodesia.This was aimed
at disuniting the
Shona and Ndebele
so as to
weakening the Africans
and avoid another
uprising.
THE NAMA AND HERERO RESISTANCE (1904 – 1907)
This was
an African resistance
which was waged
by the Nama
and Herero people in present day
Namibia from January
1904 – 1907.Originally, three
main ethnic groups
occupied Namibia, these were : The
Ambo, the Herero
and the Nama.
The Ambo
and the Herero
consisted of Bantu
group and engaged
in animal husbandry and
crop cultivation. The Nama
were the Hottentots who
were traditionally the
pastoralists. Both of them
valued land for
crop cultivation and animal
husbandry.
The settlement
of the Bantu
(The Ambo and
Herero) in Namibia triggered
traditional conflicts between
them and the
Hottentots’(Nama). This was due to the
fact that both
of them valued
land for economic
activities, The Bantu for
Cultivation while the
Hottentots’ for livestock
keeping. The hostility went
on until the
arrival of the
Europeans, who also manipulated
this rivalry for
their benefit.
The Herero
received warmly the
Germans as the
Herero hoped that
the whites would
assist them against
their rivals, Nama. Soon after
their arrival in
Herero land, the Germans declared
a protectorate over
Namibia and established
their administration. Worse
enough, the Germans set
up a military
base at Windhoek
and launched various
attacks on the Nama between
1884 and 1904.The Germans
created various economic
and political policies
that provoked the
outbreak of the
resistance.
For example
in 1903, they inaugurated
the Settler Policy that
demanded Africans(Both Nama
and the Herero) to
move out their
land and give
to white settlers. In
January 1904, there w as a
massive Herero revolt
against the Germans. The Nama joined the war in October
in the same
year. The Nama were under Hendrick
Witbooi while the Herero were under Chief
Samuel Maherero.
REASONS FOR THE OUTBREAK OF NAMA AND HERERO
RESISTANCE
Both the
Nama and Herero
had political, social and
economic discontent as
follows:-
i.
Land
alienation. The
German settlers alienated
and occupied fertile
land of the
Africans and pushed them
into unproductive land. This
created hostility between
Africans and German
government something that
led to the
resistance .
ii.
Cattle
confiscation. The
Nama and Herero depended much
on cattle for
their survival. The Germans seized
their cattle in order to compel
them to work
in German farms
and mines. This angered
them very much hence
Nama and Herero
resistance.
iii.
Introduction
to forced labor. In 1896, the Germans introduced
forced labor as
they demanded laborers
in their economic sectors. The Nama
and Herero were
forced to work
in railway construction, public buildings, plantation and
mines. Worse enough they
were paid lowly. This
resulted into Nama
and Herero resistance.
iv.
The
outbreak of rinderpest disease. In 1903, there
was outbreak of
rinderpest, the epidemic that
swept away many
Nama and Herero
cattle. The Native leaders
and other spiritual
leaders expounded this
epidemics as a
curse from the
ancestors who were
unhappy with the
presence of the
white men ion the
country. Therefore, this
made the Nama and
Herero to wage a
resistance against the
Germans.
v.
Creation
of reserves. In
1903, the colonial administration created
area of reserves
for the Herero
and Nama. That means, the
Nama and Herero
were forced to go and
live in
the reserves near
the Kalahari desert. These
reserves were barren
and infected with
tsetse flies. This as a result
led to the
resistance.
vi.
Payment
of debts. Soon after the arrival
of the Germans
in Herero land, they established
commercial relationship with
Africans where Africans (Herero) borrowed money
from the Germans. But
later on, the Africans failed
to pay their debts
then the Germans
started to force
them to repay. Worse
enough, the Germans demanded
from the Africans
high interest, that they
were unable to pay
and found themselves
in debt trap. In
1903, the Colonial government
introduced a Credit Ordinance
which stated that
all German money lenders
were mandated to accumulated/
collect their debts
from Africans for the
duration of one year. After that period, the debt
would be invalid. With
this permission, the Germans
seized African cattle
and land and
sold them in order
to regain their
money. This angered Chief
Maherero and his
Africans something which
led to the resistance.
vii.
German
administration. Both the Nama and Herero were disgusted by the
German administration that
never paid attention
to the traditional
authority. The tradition of
chiefs were not
consulted in policy
making something which affected their
leadership position. This
led to
Nama and Herero so as
to regain their
political independence.
viii.
Cultural
interference. The Nama and Herero were not happy with the
new culture introduced by the Germans especially the new religion,
Christianity. Therefore, Africans resisted because they wanted to maintain
their culture.
EFFECTS OF NAMA AND HERERO RESISTANCE
a)
Depopulation -
Many people lost their lives while others got severe sufferings. This as a
result led to depopulation in Namibia.
b)
Land
alienation - The natives in Namibia lost their land after
the war. The Nama and Herero were thrown out of their fertile land and taken to
reserve areas near the Kalahari Desert where many of them died.
c)
Cattle
confiscation - The Nama and Herero lost all their cattle
after the war. The German government deprived all their cattle.
d)
Creation
of concentration camps - The Germany government introduced the
concentration camps where thousands of women and children were grouped there
and many of them died of hunger.
e)
Total
colonialism - The defeat of the Nama and Herero paved way
for total colonialism in Namibia where the Germans established their colonial
government.
SAMORE TOURE RESISTANCE 1882-1898 (MANDIKA
RESISTANCE)
This
was a resistance organized by the Mandika people of Mandika Empire under Samore Toure in present day Guinea. Historically, Samore Toure was
the leader of the Mandika people who occupied the area of present day Guinea.
He was a soldier and a successful trader. During his reign, he conquered
different tribes and states which were against Islamic culture that dominated
the Mandika Empire. He managed to establish a strong military state and wanted
to create strong new Mali Empire under Mandika tribe.
In
previous time, he involved himself in legitimate trade with European traders.
The profit acquired from selling gold and kola nuts he used to strengthen his
military force. He was a very brilliant tactician and a military strategist
something which enabled him to offer the longest resistance in the history of
colonialism in Africa.
REASONS FOR LONG RESISTANCE OF SAMORE TOURE
(Why Samore Toure resistance took so long)
There
were several reasons why Samore Toure resistance took a long period of time
(almost 16 years). Some of those reasons were as follows:
a)
Strong
army - SamoreToure had a strong organized army which all the time
was full armed and ready to fight. This led to a long resistance.
b)
Scorched
Earth method - Toure used this method in fighting the French.
It was a technique of destroying crops and food stores in the place where the
French marched. This was done purposely in order to make the French starve when
reaching the areas. This also added to a long resistance.
c)
Presence
of wealthy – Samore Toure had enough wealthy obtained from
gold trade. He used this wealthy to strengthen his army something which led to
a strong resistance.
d)
Production
of weapons – Samore Toure had ability to produce his own
weapons. This led to availability of enough weapons which added to a long
resistance of Toure.
e)
Islamic
religion – Samore Toure used Islamic religion to unite
the Mandika people to resist the French who were Christians. This led to a
strong and long resistance of Samore Toure.
f)
The
use of Guerilla Toure used guerilla war technique to fight the
French. The use of guerilla tactic made the Mandika people under Toure to
resist for a long period of time because the French had no experience with
guerilla fighting.
g)
Intelligence
system - Toure had a strong security system through which enemies
were often known before doing anything. Therefore, before any attack, Toure had
plans to encounter it. This also added to a long resistance.
h)
Fighting
experience - Toure and his soldiers had a fighting
experience from fighting with different societies and enemies. This also
contributed to a long resistance of Samore Toure.
WHY SAMORE TOURE WAS DEFEATED?
(Reasons for the defeat of Samore Toure)
i.
Internal
weakness - Other people in Mandika Empire were against
Islamic religion due to the fact that Toure used force to make people follow
the religion. This contributed to weakness hence the defeat.
ii.
French
military - The French used strong weapons which were more
modernized than of Toure. This is the reason why Toure could not face the
French in an open battle. Therefore, the defeat of SamoreToure was inevitable.
iii. Betray from his people - At
the end Toure was betrayed by his subjects who saw it difficult to win the war.
Others were tired of resisting against the French who had strong weapons.
iv. Natural disasters - There
was serious food shortage to the people, long period of drought, and outbreak
of diseases as the war continued. This also added to the defeat of Toure.
v.
Divide
and rule - The French took advantage of presence of
enmity between Mandika Empire and other neighboring empires. They made
different collaboration with neighboring societies as a way to defeat Toure.
For examples, in 1881 they collaborated with King of Futa Djalon and also in
1887 they collaborated with Ahmedu Seku of Toklar Empire. This added to the
defeat of Samore Toure.
vi. Dispossession of caravan routes - The
French captured the trade caravan routes and controlled gold production zones
which were sources of income to Samore Toure. This led to failure of Samore
Toure to accumulate Wealthy and therefore he became unable to finance his
military hence the defeat.
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